1.
General Overview
The goal of language teaching is to develop communicative
competence. In Hymes’ theory, communicative competence refers to what a
speaker needs to know in order to be communicative in a speech community.
According to Richards and Rodgers (2003: 159), the main goal of CLT is to
enable students to communicate in the target language. The emphasis is on the
communication, rather than the language forms. In Hymes’ view, a person who
acquires communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for
language use with respect to:
2. Approach
The communicative approach in language teaching starts
from a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching is to
develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as "communicative competence."
Hymes coined this term in order to contrast a communicative view of language
and Chomsky's theory of competence. Chomsky held that linguistic theory is
concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener in a completely homogeneous
speech community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such
grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitation, distractions, shifts
of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying
his knowledge of the language in actual performance (Chomsky, 1965: 3).
For Chomsky, the focus of linguistic theory was to
characterize the abstract abilities speakers possess that enable them to
produce grammatically correct sentences in a language. Hymes held that such a
view of linguistic theory was sterile, that linguistic theory needed to be seen
as part of a more general theory incorporating communication and culture. Hymes's theory of communicative competence
was a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicative
competent in a speech community. In Hymes's view, a person who acquires
communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for language use
with respect to:
a)
whether
(and to what degree) something is formally possible;
b)
whether
(and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of
implementation available;
c)
whether
(and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in
relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;
d)
whether
(and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what
its doing entails.
This theory of what knowing
a language entails offers a much more comprehensive view than Chomsky's view of
competence, which deals primarily with abstract grammatical knowledge.
Another linguistic theory of communication favored in
CLT is Halliday's functional account of language use. "Linguistics ... is
concerned... with the description of speech acts or texts, since only through
the study of language in use are all the functions of language, and therefore
all components of meaning, brought into focus" (Halliday, 1970: 145). In a
number of influential books and papers, Halliday has elaborated a powerful theory of the functions of
language, which complements Hymes's view of communicative competence
for many writers on CLT (e.g., Brumfit and Johnson 1979; Savignon 1983). He describes
(1975: 11-17) seven basic functions
that language performs for children learning their first language:
a)
the
instrumental function: using language to get things;
b)
the
regulatory function: using language to control the behavior of others;
c)
the
interactional function: using language to create interaction with others;
d)
the
personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings;
e)
the
heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover;
f)
the
imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination;
g)
The
representational function: using language to communicate information.
Proponents of Communicative Language Teaching as
acquiring the linguistic means to perform different kinds of functions
similarly viewed learning a second language.
At the level of language theory, Communicative
Language Teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base. Some of
the characteristics of this
communicative view of language follow.
a)
Language
is a system for the expression of meaning.
b)
The
primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
c)
The
structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
d)
The
primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural
features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified
in discourse.
3. Design
A. Objectives
Piepho (1981) discusses the following levels of objectives in a
communicative approach:
i.
An
integrative and content level (language as a means of expression)
ii.
A
linguistic and instrumental level (language as a semiotic system and an object
of learning)
iii.
An
effective level of interpersonal relationships and conflict (language as a
means of expressing values and judgments about oneself and others.
iv.
A
level of individual learning needs (remedial learning based on error analysis)
v.
A
general educational level of extra-linguistic goals (language learning within
the school curriculum)
These are proposed as general objectives, applicable to any teaching
situation. Particular objectives for CLT cannot be defined beyond this level of
specification, since such an approach assumes that language teaching will
reflect the particular needs of the target learners. These needs may be in the
domains of reading, writing, listening, or speaking, each of which can be
approached from a communicative perspective. Curriculum or instructional
objectives for a particular course would reflect specific aspects of
communicative competence according to the learner's proficiency level and
communicative needs.
B. The
Syllabus
Discussions of the nature of the syllabus have been central in
Communicative Language Teaching. We have seen that one of the first syllabus
models to be proposed was described as a notional syllabus (Wilkins, 1976),
which specified the semantic-grammatical categories (e.g., frequency, motion,
location) and the categories of communicative function that learners need to
express. The Council of Europe expanded
and developed this into a syllabus that included descriptions of the objectives
of foreign language courses for European adults, the situations in which they
might typically need to use a foreign language (e.g., travel, business), the
topics they might need to talk about (e.g., personal identification, education,
shopping), the functions they needed language for (e.g., describing something,
requesting information, expressing agreement and disagreement), the notions
made use of in communication (e.g., time, frequency, duration), as well as the
vocabulary and grammar needed. The result was published as Threshold Level
English (Van Ek and Alexander, 1980) and was an attempt to specify
what was needed in order to be able to achieve a reasonable degree of
communicative proficiency in a foreign language, including the language items
needed to realize this "threshold level."
C. Types of learning and teaching activities
The range of exercise types and activities
compatible with a communicative approach is unlimited, provided that such
exercises enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the
curriculum, engage learners in communication, and require the use of such
communicative processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and
interaction. Classroom
activities are often designed to focus on completing tasks that are mediated
through language or involve negotiation of information and information
sharing.
D. Learner roles
The role of learner is as a negotiator-between themselves, the learning
process, and the object of learning. The students’ role is also as communicator
in dealing with the material that is given by the teacher.
E. Teacher
Roles
Several roles are assumed for teachers in Communicative Language Teaching,
the importance of particular roles being determined by the view of CLT adopted.
Breen and Candlin describe teacher roles in the following terms:
The teacher has two main roles:
the first role is to facilitate the communication process between all
participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various
activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant
within the learning-teaching group. The latter role is closely related
to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. These roles imply a set
of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as
a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures and
activities. A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and learner,
with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual
and observed experience of the nature of learning and organizational
capacities (1980: 99).
F. The
Role of Instructional Materials
A wide variety of materials have been used to support communicative
approaches to language teaching. Unlike some contemporary methodologies, such
as Community Language Learning, practitioners of Communicative Language
Teaching view materials as a way of influencing the quality of classroom
interaction and language use. Materials thus have the primary role of promoting
communicative language use. We will consider three kinds of materials currently
used in CLT and label these text-based, task-based, and realia.
I.
TEXT-BASED
MATERIALS
There are numerous textbooks designed to direct
and support Communicative Language Teaching. Their tables of contents sometimes
suggest a kind of grading and sequencing of language practice not unlike those
found in structurally organized texts. Some of these are in fact written around
a largely structural syllabus, with slight reformatting to justify their claims
to be based on a communicative approach. Others, however, look very different
from previous language teaching texts. Morrow and Johnson's Communicate (1979),
for example, has none of the usual dialogues, drills, or sentence patterns and
uses visual cues, taped cues, pictures, and sentence fragments to initiate
conversation. Watcyn-Jones's Pair Work (1981) consists of two different
texts for pair work, each contains different information needed to enact role
plays and carry out other pair activities. Texts written to support the Malaysian
English Language Syllabus (1975) likewise represent a departure from
traditional textbook modes. A typical lesson consists of a theme (e.g.,
relaying information), a task analysis for thematic development (e.g.,
understanding the message, asking questions to obtain clarification, asking for
more information, taking notes, ordering and presenting information), a
practice situation description (e.g., "A caller asks to see your manager.
He does not have an appointment. Gather the necessary information from him and
relay the message to your manager."), a stimulus presentation (in the
preceding case, the beginning of an office conversation scripted and on tape),
comprehension questions (e.g., "Why is the caller in the office?"),
and paraphrase exercises.
II.
TASK-BASED
MATERIALS
A variety of games, role plays, simulations, and
task-based communication activities have been prepared to support Communicative
Language Teaching classes. These typically are in the form of one-of-a-kind
items: exercise handbooks, cue cards, activity cards, pair-communication
practice materials, and student-interaction practice booklets. In
pair-communication materials, there are typically two sets of material for a
pair of students, each set containing different kinds of information. Sometimes
the information is complementary, and partners must fit their respective parts
of the "jigsaw" into a composite whole. Others assume different role
relationships for the partners (e.g., an interviewer and an interviewee). Still
others provide drills and practice material in interactional formats.
III.
REALIA
Many proponents of Communicative Language Teaching
have advocated the use of "authentic," "from-life"
materials in the classroom. These might include language-based realia, such as
signs, magazines, advertisements, and newspapers, or graphic and visual sources
around which communicative activities can he built, such as maps, pictures,
symbols, graphs, and charts. Different kinds of objects can be used to support
communicative exercises, such as a plastic model to assemble from directions.
4. Procedure
1)
Presentation
of a brief dialog or several mini-dialogs
2)
Oral
practice of each utterance of the dialog segment to be presented that day
3)
Question
and answer based on the dialog topic.
4)
Question
and answer related to the student’s personal experience
5)
Study
one of the basic communicative expressions in dialog.
6)
Learner
discovery of generalizations or rules underlying the functional expression
7)
Oral
recognition, interpretative activities
8)
Oral
production activities proceeding from guided to freer communication activities
9)
Copying
of the dialog or modules if they are not in the class text
10) Sampling of the written homework assignment
11) Evaluation of learning.
5. The
Pitfall
a.
In
Communicative Language Teaching, the teachers should be able to mastering
communication skill in order to deliver the materials for the target language.
b.
Reading
skill will decrease among the students because they will usually using speaking
skill and the portion of reading decrease.
c.
The
beginner’s students will find difficulties because they must jump to
communicative activity directly.
6. Conclusion
Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a
method. The goal of language teaching is to develop communicative
competence. The
communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as
communication.
Piepho (1981) discusses the following levels of
objectives in a communicative approach:
i. An integrative
and content level (language as a means of expression)
ii. A
linguistic and instrumental level (language as a semiotic system and an object
of learning)
iii. An
effective level of interpersonal relationships and conflict (language as a
means of expressing values and judgments about oneself and others.
iv. A
level of individual learning needs (remedial learning based on error analysis)
v. A
general educational level of extra-linguistic goals (language learning within
the school curriculum)
Discussions of the nature of the syllabus have been
central in Communicative Language Teaching. We have seen that one of the first
syllabus models to be proposed was described as a notional syllabus (Wilkins, 1976),
which specified the semantic-grammatical categories (e.g., frequency, motion,
location) and the categories of communicative function that learners need to
express.
The range of exercise types and activities compatible
with a communicative approach is unlimited, provided that such exercises
enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum,
engage learners in communication, and require the use of such communicative
processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction.
Classroom activities are often designed to focus on completing tasks that are
mediated through language or involve negotiation of information and
information sharing.
The role of learner is as a negotiator-between
themselves, the learning process, and the object of learning. The students’ role
is as communicator in dealing with the material that is given by the teacher.
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to
facilitate the communication process between all participants in the
classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts.
The second role is to act as an independent participant within the
learning-teaching group.
A wide variety of materials have been used to support
communicative approaches to language teaching. Unlike some contemporary
methodologies, such as Community Language Learning, practitioners of
Communicative Language Teaching view materials as a way of influencing the
quality of classroom interaction and language use. Materials thus have the
primary role of promoting communicative language use. We will consider three
kinds of materials currently used in CLT and label these text-based,
task-based, and realia.
The procedures of Communicative Language Teaching are:
1)
Presentation
of a brief dialog or several mini-dialogs
2)
Oral
practice of each utterance of the dialog segment to be presented that day
3)
Question
and answer based on the dialog topic.
4)
Question
and answer related to the student’s personal experience
5)
Study
one of the basic communicative expressions in dialog.
6)
Learner
discovery of generalizations or rules underlying the functional expression
7)
Oral
recognition, interpretative activities
8)
Oral
production activities proceeding from guided to freer communication activities
9)
Copying
of the dialog or modules if they are not in the class text
10) Sampling of the written homework assignment
11) Evaluation of learning.
This method also has some
weaknesses, those are:
a.
In
Communicative Language Teaching, the teachers should be able to mastering
communication skill in order to deliver the materials for the target language.
b.
Reading
skill will decrease among the students because they will usually using speaking
skill and the portion of reading decrease.
c.
The
beginner’s students will find difficulties because they must jump to
communicative activity directly.
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